Astronomy topics for your comic

You will explain in a comic different discoveries related with the topics shown below. Do not forget to explain the materials and methods involved in the discovery using a good storyboard with simple words and simple drawings. DEADLINE: 1st December 2019

Krita is an open source software to create webtoons. There are many tutorials and video tutorials.

https://docs.krita.org/en/user_manual/working_with_images.html

Use 20 images of 800 x 1280 pixels in a webtoon format in order to be read it in a mobile. The idea is similar to a Pechakucha presentation style, that is 20 seconds to be invested in viewing every image.

You can upload your comic to your neocities.org in a similar way to this video: [youtube]https://youtu.be/LXRfimkT3go[/youtube]

  1. Sun by Ms. Alonso: solar religion Egyptian sun temple, Heliopolis, Thales of Miletus and Anaximander stopped a war with a Sun eclipse forecast, Anaxagoras explanation of eclipses, distance of the Sun using moon phases by Aristarchus and Ptolemy about 1200 Earth radii (about 20 times distance to Moon compared to Sun distance because 87° instead of 89.853° and 389 radii to Moon), Little Ice Age and grand solar minima, letters on sunspots by Galileo, controversy with  “Apelles latens post tabulam” and 1610 Thomas Harriot, Sun 1783 Herschel discovered Sun is not at any centre, it is moving towards Lambda Herculis, Carrington 1859 coronal mass ejection affects aurora borealis and all telegraphs (internet XIX century), 1989 Quebec no electricity, geomagnetic solar storm 2012,solar winds, auroras, Zeeman effect magnetism, Maunder butterfly diagram sunspot cycles, solar neutrinos Davis experiment, nuclear fusion, solar flares, why corone at 2 million degrees with Parker probe  (oven cooler than kitchen), study in eclipses. Scientists studying the 11-year solar cycle are trying to predict when a quiet sun will next turn violent. In 2019 the sun is near a solar minimum, a spotless sun, as seen by NASA’s Solar Dynamics Observatory. In 5 years or so, the sun will be awash in sunspots and more prone to violent bursts of magnetic activity. Then, about 11 years from now, the solar cycle will conclude: Sunspots will fade away and the sun will again grow quiet. Scientists are trying to predict the Solar Cycle 25, aiming to understand what drives the sun’s 11-year cycles and assess methods for predicting them. But the exercise is not just academic: The military, satellite operators, and electric utilities all want to know what the sun has in store, because the flares and bursts of charged particles that mark solar maximum can damage their technologies. Sunspots can be seen with the naked eye, but it wasn’t until the mid-1800s that astronomers realized they come and go on a rough schedule. They first appear at midlatitudes and then proliferate, migrating toward the equator over about 11 years. In 1848, Swiss astronomer Johann Rudolf Wolf published an account of the sunspot record, identifying 1755–66 as “Cycle 1,” the first period when counts were reliable. He then created a formula for counting the number of daily sunspots—a somewhat subjective technique that has evolved into a counting method used today to marry data sets across the centuries. The cycles are capricious, however. Sometimes, the sun goes quiet for decades, with anemic sunspot counts across several cycles—as occurred during the 19th century’s so-called Dalton minimum. Such variations are what the scientists are trying  to forecast., but the problem is that no one really knows how the sun works.
  2. Star evolution and supernovae by Ms. Argemí: from Hipparchus to Hipparcos star catalogue and sounds,  Hertzsprung–Russell diagram, main sequence, giant, hypergiants, cepheid variables important for distances, Sun example G02 star evolution, nova, supernova, neutrino star, black holes, etc. Star KIC 8462852 (not Dyson sphere, theories about this star). Strange quark stars, the only ones living forever. Supernovae: historical ones, type Ia are standard candles to measure very long distances when no parallax nor Cepheids variables are useful approx. 1bly, Supernovae types, origin of chemical elements, Hypernova first generation of stars (Filippenko proposal). In 1940s when Rudolph Minkowski and Fritz Zwicky split supernovae according to whether hydrogen lines were present in their spectra (type II) or not (type I). Ultra-bright ‘superluminous’ supernovae (SLSNe), are some 100 times brighter than classical supernova types, offering new probes of the high-redshift Universe and the potential for a new class of standard candle, other are transients showing a fast rise and subsequent rapid decay (fast blue optical transients or rapidly evolving transients).Thermonuclear supernovae — those involving the explosion of a white dwarf — and particularly type-Ia supernovae, used to measure the expansion of the Universe. Core-collapse supernovae result as the explosions of massive stars. The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), due to begin operations within the next five years, is expected to find one thousand SNe per night.
  3. Mercury by Mr. Bayón: Sumerian and babylonian God Nabu, messenger of Gods and moving in chariot the Sun quickly, transit in heliocentric, Mariner 10, messenger spacecraft and messenger of gods, Schiapparelli tidal locking (now is resonance 3:2, 60 days rotation period), perihelion precession of Mercury not because of Vulcan LeVerrier but of  relativity law (Mercury orbit relativity theory confirmed), nearest the Sun but not the hottest planet; Arecibo radiotelescope 305m 1965 59 days not 88 days, Poincaré impossible to forecast the future with differential equations (chaos theory), Messenger spacecraft variation of temperature from 400°C to -100°C water ice under poles, BeppiColombo launched 2018.
  4. Venus by Ms. Boronat: Sumerian goddess Innana, Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa, Pythagoras evening star= morning star= Venus, Galileo’s anagram “Haec immatura a me iam frustra leguntur oy” and Kepler misinterpretation, Venus phases by Galileo means heliocentric, 90 bars, CO2 greenhouse dense atmosphere higher T than Mercury, transit 1639 Horrocks aprox calculation of 1 A.U., Halley 1716 method to measure solar parallax using Venus transit, Lomonosov observes atmosphere in 1761 in Venus transit observed from 62 places (one was Captain Cook at Point Venus in Tahiti) from 8.3″ to 10.6″ solar parallax, Encke (1835) 8.57″, Venera 7 transmission for 35 minutes (total 10 Soviet missions 110 minutes), 1961 3 radiotelescope detect backward rotation 243 days, Akatsuki IR2 camera sees under sulfuric cloud cover finding two planetary-scale streak structure, Venus in van Gogh’s “The starry night”
  5. Earth by Ms. Calzada: Aristarchus size and distance to the Sun and to the Moon parallax 87°,  Hipparchus solar parallax 7’~ 490 Earth radii, Huygens 1659  8″ near 1 A.U,  Ptolemy 2′ 50″ 1250 Earth radii  Erasthostones size, Magallanes-ElCano, Greehouse effect Aarhenius,  Antikythera mechanism, Michell’s torsion balance for Cavendish experiment for Earth density calculus (and Gravitational constant!), location at Orion Arm of Milky Way in the Outskirts of the Virgo Supercluster (Laniakea) part of the galaxy filament superstructure Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex; 3D map if Milky Way using Cepheid variables.
  6. Mars by Ms. Carrascosa: red planet (Fe), God of war and plague Sumerians is Nergal, babylonians take note of positions, Aristotle finds Mars farther away Moon because an occultation, Mars change of of brightness (conjunctions and oppositions), Kepler calculus of distances in A.U. and Kepler laws from Tycho Brahe observatory, Huygens (1656 pendulum clock, 1658 telescope+micrometer), Huygens Mars rotation 24h, Cassini (1670-1673), Mars parallax in Paris (Cassini) and French Guyana (Jean Richer) to find distance to Mars (and others because A.U by Kepler), Moon size 30 min arc, Mars apparent diameter from 3.5″ to 25,1″, CO2 atmosphere 0.1 bars, 1726 Swift “Gulliver’s Travels” wrote data about two Mars satellites and previous Kepler error in Galileo’s anagram before discovery, 1877 Hall discovered Phobos and Deimos with 26-inch giant refractor telescope in Mars opposition and mass calculus,  Olympus Mons h=22km, Valles Marineris canyon 4000km long, Schiaparelli 22 cm diameter telescope and 45 cm Lowell canali (artificial canal and natural channel confusion), H.G.Wells “The War of the Worlds” and Orson Wells radio crisis, Tesla proposed possible radio signal from Mars, Mars monolith, Viking 1 “Face on Mars” is a mesa, terraforming with silica aerogel domes: Enabling Martian habitability with silica aerogel via the solid-state greenhouse effectA combination of laboratory experiments and numerical modelling shows that a 2–3 cm-thick layer of silica aerogel deployed over the temperate regions of Mars could maintain a surface environment conducive to liquid water all year round. Such an approach would create a habitable setting for photosynthetic life, underground ice in south pole and the Utopia Planitia, extremophyles, organic compounds Curiosity rover), Martian meteorite ALH84001, dust storm cover planet June-July 2018 (it killed Opportunity rover like Mariner 9 1971 dust storm). “I would like to die on Mars—just not on impact. “—ELON MUSK
  7. Jupiter by Ms. Chen: Galilean moons heliocentric 1610, Cassini 1660s observation of spots and rotational period 10h  and year= 12 Earth years and Great Red Spot, speed of light calculus using Io rotating Jupiter by Roemer 1676, Jupiter’s trojan asteroids Lagrange, Galileo spacecraft mission saw saltwaters underneath Jupiter’s moons (Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) and active volcanoes in Io, a comet hitting Jupiter, string of pearls, auroras, Great Red Spot (Schwabe, 1831) in Hubble Space Telescope image 27 June 2019, 1955 radio signals rotation 10 h,Juno probe from 2011 to 2021 because goddess was able to peer through the clouds and reveal Jupiter’s true nature and  backronym Jupiter Near-polar Orbiter.
  8. Saturn by Ms Chen Pan: Galileo 1612 magnification x30 sees oOo (Micky mouse ears) secret anagram SMAISMRMILMEPOETALEUMIBUNENUGTTAUIRAS , rings, Huygens (1656) correct rings of Saturn in another secret anagram  aaaaaaacccccdeeeeeghiiiiiiillllmmnnnnnnnnnooooppqrrstttttuuuuu, he discovered Titan in 1655 (anagram for Titan was ‘Admovere oculis distantia sidera nostris vvvvvvv ccc rr h n b q x’) with self-made refractor telescope 3m long and 5cm diameter-> magnification 50x and aerial telescope 100x sees rings, Cassini division of rings 1676 with 11m telescope 13.5cm diameter produced by Mimas discovered by Herschel), rings caused tidal force within Roche limit 1848, Cassini-Huygens spacecraft photo of Pan (“ravioli” shape moon creating Encke gap), Maxwell predict mathematically the ring is not solid but made of particles and confirmed by Voyager, Great White Spot 2011, Titan moon is a dwarf planet (retrograde orbit from Kuiper belt) with hydrocarbon lakes and methane and nitrogen atmosphere (Cassini-Huygens launch 1997 until grand finale 2017 rings younger than planet, Saturn 2004-2017 and Huygens landing area 2005 with dark orange sky near a methane lake, also methane rain, oceans and rivers), Enceladus’south polar icy geysers create Saturn’s E ring and 4 tiger strips with water vapour jets, Enceladus and Titan subsurface water oceans, Saturn’s North Pole with a hexagon-shape storm (35 years, 2 Earth diameter). Saturn’s A and B rings ice water with minor components.
  9. Ice giant planets by Ms Dominguez: Uranus (1781 Herschel was the discoverer but first confused with comet or with a star named 34 Tauri by Flamsteed in 1690) with backward rotation and Neptune (LeVerrier prediction with Kepler laws) 1846 discovery, mistaken with a star by Galileo 1614, Great Dark Spot 1989 Voyager 2 probe. Uranus mantle high pressure methane into liquid diamonds with rainfall of solid diamonds (and in Neptune, Jupiter and Saturn). Superionic water. Triton is main Neptune moon with cryovolcanoes discovered by Voyager 2 (1989), 10km N2 geysers and ice nitrogen proposed as propellant (future mission Triton Hopper NASA 2019).
  10. Dwarf planets by Ms Dueñas: Pluto is not a regular planet (IAU, 2006). Ceres is the closest to Earth and lives  in asteroid belt . Other dwarf planets live in the Kuiper belt, Pluto (god infraworld can be invisible) was predicted by Percival Lowell and it was discovered in 1930 by Tombaugh and main moon Charon and visited by New Horizons. Pluto’s surface features named Heart, Whale, and Brass Knuckles. The so-called Heart (South area, Sputnik Planum) is a frozen plain of nitrogen and carbon monoxide ices. The New Horizons space probe imaged frozen nitrogen mountains, and an area near Sputnik Planum that has been named Tartarus Dorsa, similar to snakeskin = elevations of frozen methane; and water-ice hills floating in a sea of frozen nitrogen like icebergs. Haumea is the 3rd closest dwarf planet to the sun with controversy in discovery with oval shape due to the fast rotation, Makemake and Eris (similar size of Pluto) are the 4th and 5th  dwarf planet in the solar system. Other trans-Neptunian objects. Kuiper belt. After flying past Pluto in 2015, the New Horizons spacecraft shifted course to encounter (486958) 2014 MU69, a much smaller body about 30 kilometers in diameter. MU69 is part of the Kuiper Belt, a collection of small icy bodies orbiting in the outer Solar System. Stern et al. present the initial results from the New Horizons flyby of MU69 on 1 January 2019. MU69 consists of two lobes that appear to have merged at low speed, producing a contact binary. This type of Kuiper Belt object is mostly undisturbed since the formation of the Solar System and so will preserve clues about that process.
  11. Messier and Caldwell catalogues by Ms. Fuentes: reasons of catalogues. Examples of type of objects: supernova remnants (M1 Crab nebula), galaxies (M31 spiral Andromeda galaxy, M77 barred spiral galaxy,  M87 giant elliptical galaxy with black hole, C60 Antennae interacting galaxies, C65 stardust Sculptor Galaxy), nebulae (M20 Trifid Nebula, M27 Dumbbell nebula, M42 Orion Nebula, C20 North America Nebula, C39 Clown Face Nebula), planetary nebulae (M97 Owl nebula, C6 Cat’s Eye Nebula), open clusters (M45 Pleiades, C41 Hyades, C99 Jewel Box), globular cluster (C80 Omega Centaurii, C106 47 Tucanae). Messier marathon in March new moon.
  12. Galaxies by Ms García: Al Sufi Andromeda galaxy and Large Magellanic Cloud (X century), John Michell double stars and clusters are common (1783), types according to Hubble fork, local groups, cluster, superclusters e.g. Milky Way was distant stars Democritus, Hershel 1785 drawing, Great Debate (Shapley–Curtis Debate, was held on 26 April 1920), Abell catalogue, Vesto Slipher 1917 move beyond the stars into the expanding universe, measuring the rotations of 25 spiral nebulae, moving away from the Earth at  1100 km/s (“island universes”), confirmed by Hubble in 1929 with 100-inch telescope, Hubble constant about 70 km/s/megaparsec, Hubble time (inverse of Hubble constant and time of Universe: 13.8 billions years). In Milky Way centred black hole is had been discovered great bubbles.
  13. Big bang by Ms. Guisado: According to Hesiod the world was created ex vacuo, i.e. out of the void that existed before it, rather than ex nihilo, out of nothing. Chaos greek myth, Ouranus covered Gaia and time began, Chines and Japanese myth divine or cosmic egg, Anaximander all was in a semen and explodes with fire, Olbers’ paradox, Hubble constant (Andromeda galaxy moves towards us, problems of Virgo Cluster Attractor and Great Attractor), cosmological constant, Gamow’s standard cosmological model, future of the Universe,  Cosmic Microwave Background  at 7.35cm wavelength antenna cooled 4K (He liquid) by Penzias and Wilson (not bird droppings), Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe spacecraft surveyed the cosmic microwave background enabling cosmologists to calculate the age and composition of the universe, GNz11 redshift 11 farthest galaxy 13.4bly, CR7 brightest galaxy in early Universe. Big bang T infinite, but limits of Planck temperature 10^32 Kelvins at time after 10^-43 seconds. From creation 23rd October 4004 BC (Ussher 1650 bible) to 13.8 billion years after Planck era (inverse Hubble constant). “Some say the world will end in fire,
    Some say in ice.
    From what I’ve tasted of desire
    I hold with those who favor fire.”
    —ROBERT FROST, 1920
    “Eternity is an awful long time—especially towards the end”.
    —WOODY ALLEN
  14. Dark matter and dark energy by Ms. Heras: John Michell proposal dark stars (black holes 1767), proposals of dark matter existance by Kelvin and Kapteyn, Fritz Zwicky studied Coma Cluster contains 400x mass than viewed (1933) and Vera Rubin discovered expansion is accelerated by dark energy (1976), dark energy studied by distant supernovae 1998 (Hubble constant negative), dark matter before big bang Tenkanen 2019, DESI instrument. The ΛCDM (Lambda cold dark matter) model is a parametrization of the Big Bang cosmological model in which the universe contains a cosmological constant denoted by Lambda(Greek Λ) and associated with dark energy; cold dark matter(CDM); and ordinary matter. Dark matter exist because of gravitational lensing (massive objects not only attract nearby bodies but also bend light rays). Experiment with one atom and a sphere shows no dark energy
  15. Spacetime by Ms. Hernández: warp drive, Einstein-Rosen hole negative mass gravity distortion, Huge Universe 8lmin Sun, 4ly Proxima Centari 30000ly center Milky Way, 2Mly Andromeda. The largest structure in the universe: the Sloan Great Wall (enormous collection of galaxies 1.37 billion light-years in length located about a billion light-years from Earth), Spitzer Space Tele-scope captured the faint infrared glow left from the first stars in the universe. Keck telescope on Mauna Kea (Hawaii) and the Hubble Space Telescope captured the first optical images of planets orbiting other stars. Mercury orbit relativity theory confirmed, Poincaré impossible to forecast the future with differential equations (chaos theory), black hole (white hole), Schwarschild radius, Hawking radiation, gravitational waves 2 black holes, Hawking error negative time in Big Crunch. “Every dream begins with a dreamer. Always remember, you have within you the strength, and the passion, to reach for the stars to change the world. “—HARRIET TUBMAN. Discovery in 2019 of a rapidly rotating millisecond pulsar, called J0740+6620, the most massive neutron star ever measured, packing 2.17 times the mass of our Sun into a sphere only 30 kilometers across. This measurement approaches the limits of how massive and compact a single object can become without crushing itself down into a black hole.
  16. Moon by Ms. Ikken: Anaxagoras moon light is Sun reflection, Hipparchus distance Moon in solar eclipse Hellespont/Alexandria 60 Earth radii, Horrocks 1630 approx elliptical orbit, tidal force for tidal locking and tides, dark side Luna 3 (1959) and Apollo 8 more crater impacts, NASA Apollo 11 mission with Margaret Hamilton informatics and Mary Jakson Hidden figures), India south pole water, China Chang’e 4 Dark side, Blue Origin (Bezos) Space X (Musk), Fermi gamma rays more than Sun.
  17. Exoplanets by Ms. Scorvelciu: Planets outside the Solar system are exoplanets. 51 Pegasi b (1995), 4000 exoplanets (2019) by Kepler spacecraft telescope in small sky region (2009-2018), Drake formula, Kardashev scale of civilisation+ Type IV civilization that controls space-time well enough to affect the entire universe, hot Jupiters, Goldilocks habitable, extremophyles, ESI index, Sagan’s 1993 article, transition method to detect exoplanet, Kepler and TESS missions, James Webb Space Telescope, SETI wow signal, WFIRST +30m Starshade spectral signature of chemical elements. Biosignatures (spectra of O2, CH4, H2O, chlorophyll, retinaldehid). Technosignatures (SETI, Breakthrough Listen). Subaru telescope, ELT 39.3 m, Breakthrough Starshot Laser 100GW minutes 1/5 c to Proxima Centari b in 20 years. K2-18 b is a planet with a mass around eight times that of the Earth that lies within the standard habitable zone of its star. Hubble spectra show the presence of an atmosphere around K2-18 b containing significant amounts of water vapour (up to a few tens of per cent, depending on the spectral model), but also a non-negligible amount of H2–He.
  18. The geocentric model by Ms. Martínez: myths,  Anaximander Earth is a cylinder and Sun and planets are in wheels, Pythagoras school quatrivium (music of spheres),  Plato’s Timaeus book and his students: Aristotle and Eudoxus, Aristotle considers Earth in the center (heavier) and over water, fire, air, as well as celestial aether in which the celestial bodies were embedded. They, themselves, were also entirely composed of aether. Ptolemy cosmovision, epicycles on top of circles (deferent) with Earth offset (equant), retrograde movement planets, Occam’s razor
  19. The heliocentric model by Mr. Martos: Pythagoras school Sun and planets around a central fire (Kepler said it was hidden teaching as sect, but was Sun), Aristarchus idea, Copernicus revolution, Tycho Brahe observations (geo-heliocentric model) and from his data Kepler obtained Kepler laws, not yet observed parallax problem, deterministic and mechanistic view of the Universe (Newton and Laplace “Celestial Mechanics”), Sun 1783 Herschel discovered Sun is not at any centre, it is moving towards Lambda Herculis. Titius-Bode planetary distances 4 + 3n, 1812 Bessel parallax of 0.314 arcseconds of a star named 61 Cygni. With the observations of William Herschel, Friedrich Bessel, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the barycenter of the Solar System, was not at any center of the universe. Rogue planets near Solar system SIMP J01365663+0933473 (2019)
  20. Radioastronomy by Ms. Monsalvo: Hertz radio waves X, Giacconi 1962 trying to find Xrays from moon but finds from outside Solar system (Scorpius X1) and Xrays from background, gamma rays, Vela Pulsar, Chandra X Ray and pulsar, GRB150101B , GRB080916C = explosion 9000 SN by Fermi Gamma Ray telescope, Jansky 1933 find noise from center of Milky Way but he tried to find interferences for Bell Telephone Company, Grote Reber backyard, type of telescopes, Jocelyn Bell found a  LGM radio pulses, repeating period of 1.3372795 s. The first binary radio pulsar PSR 1913+16 (1975) confirms relativity, Penzias and Wilson found a noise source equally strong in all directions = cosmic microwave background radiation using Dicke microwave radiometer confused with bird droppings in antenna, space telescopes discoveries, 2016 FAST 500m China radiotelescope, Fast Radio Bursts CHIME 2019. Measure distance with radio telemetry precision 3 ppb.Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are flashes of radio emission from distant astronomical sources. Two FRBs are known to have repeated, but most last just a few milliseconds and are never seen again. Most telescopes that are sensitive to single FRBs have poor angular resolutions, so the FRB host galaxies remain unknown. Bannister et al. used a dedicated observing mode on a radio interferometer to detect and localize the nonrepeating FRB 180924, then followed up with optical telescope observations. They found that the FRB came from a medium-sized galaxy at a cosmological distance. Localizing FRBs will help determine their causes and allow them to be used as cosmological probes. Fast radio bursts (FRBs) are brief radio emissions from distant astronomical sources. Some are known to repeat, but most are single bursts. Nonrepeating FRB observations have had insufficient positional accuracy to localize them to an individual host galaxy. We report the interferometric localization of the single-pulse FRB 180924 to a position 4 kiloparsecs from the center of a luminous galaxy at redshift 0.3214. The burst has not been observed to repeat. The properties of the burst and its host are markedly different from those of the only other accurately localized FRB source. The integrated electron column density along the line of sight closely matches models of the intergalactic medium, indicating that some FRBs are clean probes of the baryonic component of the cosmic web.
  21. Astronomical spectroscopy by Ms. Morales:  Newton prism light 1672, IR by Herschel thermometer, UV Ritter 1801 light sensitive silver chloride darken more UV than violet, Fraunhofer lines stars 1815, Kirchoff 3 laws, “Harvard computers” women classify star spectra in OBAFGKM, Cecilia Payne in 1925 stars were composed primarily of hydrogen and helium (contradicted the scientific wisdom of the time: no significant elemental differences between the Sun and Earth), spectra Doppler effect formula CR7 galaxy.
  22. Gravitational waves by Ms. Moreno:  disturbances in the curvature of spacetime, generated by accelerated masses, that propagate as waves outward from their source at the speed of light. They were proposed by Henri Poincaré in 1905 and subsequently predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein on the basis of his general theory of relativity. In 1993 Nobel Prize of Physics PSR B1913+16 or the Hulse–Taylor binary pulsar. In 2016 discovery and measurement of gravitational waves with LISA, LIGO GW150914 as a result of  merging black holes and/or neutron stars.
  23. Neutrino astronomy by Mr. Gómez: From Pauli’s proposal to direct detection and flavours, solar neutrino problem and Homestake experiment 1970-1994, Neutrino sources (SN1987A, Large Magellanic Cloud, Blazar TXS 0506+056 3.7bly) and neutrino detector: IceCube Neutrino Observatory in Antarctica. More information.
  24. Interstellar objects by Ms Pérez: ʻOumuamua: Hawaiian name origin, why is not UFO nor asteroid nor comet, shape, project Lyra. The faintness of ‘Oumuamua, together with the limited time window within which observations were possible, constrained the information available on its dynamics and physical state. Official name indicate it is the first interstellar object. On August, 30, 2019 the amateur astronomer Gennady Borisov discovered a possible second interstellar object, provisionally named Comet C/2019 Q4 (Borisov) among other candidates, mission to Borisov object from 2030 to 2045. Exo-asteroid, known as 2015 BZ509 is orbiting Jupiter.
  25. Meteorites, asteroids and comets by Ms. Reina: Chelyabinsk meteor 2013, Tunguska explosion 1908, Kulik 1927 no meteorite nor crater,  Cambrian explosion 550 million years, dinosaur killing explosion 65 million years, Arizona impact 50000 years, heavy bombardment 4.1 billion years ago, great comet 1577 made Tycho no solid spheres in sky, Rosetta landed in 2016 over Comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, Apophys 2029 and Near Earth Objects, asteroids mining Ni Co Pt and from ice H2 and O2 as fuel (companies allowed in Luxemburg), meteor showers.          2.229 billion years ago, when an asteroid crashed into our planet. The finding makes Yarrabubba crater, the 70-kilometer-wide scar left by the collision, Earth’s oldest In a laboratory tub, he zapped the rocks with 100,000 volts of electricity, breaking them up into their component minerals, he picked out several hundred grains of zircon and monazite, each smaller than the width of a human hair. Erickson measured small amounts of radioactive uranium, trapped within the crystal, decay into lead. From the proportions and the known half-life of the uranium, he and his colleagues could calculate an age. They ended up with a date of 2.229 billion years old, plus or minus 5 million years. Cyanobacteria living in shallow water produced atmospheric oxygen about 2.4 billion years ago. Previously, high levels of methane in the atmosphere had generated a greenhouse effect that warmed the planet.  Asteroids delivered phosphorus, a key nutrient, and the impacts also created the protected, energy-rich hydrothermal systems where some biologists believe life began. “Impacts can be bringers of life, impacts can be destroyers of life” Comet Hale-Bopp and  Comet Hyakutake are long-period comets (thousands years) originated in the Oort Clouds and detected in the late 1990s, Comet Hale-Bopp was considerably brighter than Halley’s Comet and was easily visible to the naked eye for about 18 months. Japanese spacecraft Hayabusa2’s landed in 2018 at 1km asteroides Ryugu and in 2019 remote sensing instruments reported geology, morphology, and composition of the asteroid, this mission will help clarify the formation of the solar system 4.5 billion years ago
  26. Future space missions by Mr. Ros: James Webb Space Telescope, Mars 2020, Europa Clipper, JUICY Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, WFIRST, Breakthrough Starshot. Mission to Mars.
  27. Naked eye observations by Ms. Tinoco: used for calendars, religious events (Islamic golden age observatories, qibla, al Biruni moon phases, astrolabes for islamic prayer), future events (astrology), Tycho Brahe mural quadrant, planets conjunctions or oppositions, comets, brightest asteroids (4 Vesta), meteor showers, historical supernovae. From constellation myths to star identification. Flamsteed designations for stars are similar to Bayer designations, except that they use numbers instead of Greek letters.
  28. Rockets by Ms. Trull: history of rockets,  flying wooden pigeon moved by steam (Greek Archytas 2300 years ago), Chinese fire arrows, Wan Hu chair 47 bamboo gunpowder,  Goddard prototypes and patents of multi-stage rocket  and a liquid-fuel rocket (both in 1914), high school teacher named Tsiolkovsky created designs from space rockets to space colonies and the ideal rocket equation, “The Earth is the cradle of humanity, but we cannot live forever in a cradle” (Tsiolkosky), 1961 Vostok-K rocket (Yuri Gagarin) and Alan Shepard suborbital flight on a Redstone rocket. Mercury rockets. NASA’s Atlas rockets 1963, John Glenn orbit Earth. Von Braun life: from II World War designer V-2 rockets hitting London to NASA Saturn V. NASA’s space-shuttle program (1981 to 2011). Pioneer program. Voyager 1 now outside the Solar System.  SpaceX and Blue Origin have also developed reusable first-stage rockets; SpaceX now has reusable Falcon 9 rockets. Future rockets: nuclear fission, nuclear fusion (Daedalus fusion starship) and antimatter rockets, wormholes, space elevators, warp drives, Casimir effect and negative energy, Alcubierre engine. Breakthrough Starshot is a research and engineering project by the Breakthrough Initiatives to develop a proof-of-concept fleet of light sail spacecraft named StarChip, to be capable of making the journey to the Alpha Centauri star system 4.37 light-years away.
  29. From astrology to astronomy by Mr. Vallejo: astrology assumptions (1) the celestial bodies are divine, (2) the stars and planets send messages (Latin omen, or warning) on behalf of gods and goddesses, or God, (3) all things in the cosmos are interdependent, (4) the cosmos unfolds according to a strict mathematical or geometrical order, and (5) different times have different qualities. Strange things: Alignment of planets gravity produces disasters, zodiac (Cetus, Ophiuchus), Aristotle’s celestial influence, birth chart.  Sextus Empiricus “Against the astrologers” (book V of “Against the professors”). History of astrology. Calculate gravitational force of Mars and a 100kg friend at 1m distance. Explain the maths formula of gravitation like what it has been done in class. Calculate also at 500 m of mountain, other planet forces and Moon and Sun gravitational forces.
  30. From Galileo to Hawking by Ms. Sanchez: cBefore Galileo: Tycho Brahe: alcoholic, eccentric (Jeppe buffon), rich Danish family, from 1560 solar eclipse University of Copenhaguen, 1566 alignment of Saturn and Jupiter 1 month error, 1672 Supernova in Cassiopea De nova, Uraniborg in island (Denmark), Imperial Mathematician and Astronomer in Prague. Kepler: religious and poor family, data from Tycho Brahe, Kepler laws, problems with Tycho. Galileo main discoveries. His teacher Ostilio Ricci changed Galileo mind to study maths instead of medicine because maths is the language of nature. His student Jacques Badovere send a letter in 1609 describing a telescope made in Netherlands and Galileo created and improved telescopes, divergent lens(non inverted image), better magnification and focus Sidereus nuncius (1710) moon not a perfect sphere (Aristotle), 4 moons in Jupiter 1616 cardinal Bellarmino not true only math hypothesis 1610 anagram meaning “Cynthiae figuras aemulatur mater amorum” and Kepler understood “Macula rufa in Jove est gyratur mathematical, etc” Robert Hook 1664 discovered Red Spot in Jupiter “Dialogo soprano I due Massimo systems del mondo” Simplicius is Pope Urban VIII 1633 array forever in her home in Tuscany until his death in 1642. Newton: laws from Kepler and Galileo. A Christmas day God said “Produce light” and Newton was born. Hawking: Hawking radiation in black holes, opinion alien civilisation

Institut Pompeu Fabra